The Suspension of Operations (SoO) agreement between the Government of India, the Government of Manipur, and Kuki armed organisations has functioned as a conflict-management framework rather than a conflict-resolution mechanism. While it reduced insurgent violence and created a dialogue platform, it has not produced a final political settlement after nearly two decades.
The post-2023 ethnic conflict has further strained the legitimacy and functionality of the SoO. A strategic reset is required to move from ceasefire maintenance → structured political settlement.
The root causes of Manipur’s tri-community differences among Meiteis, Nagas, and Kukis are not ancient or inevitable, but largely shaped by historical disruptions, colonial divisions, post-independence politics, and socio-economic inequalities. A deeper inquiry shows how rigid identity classifications, unequal development between hills and valley, competition over land and political power, and long-standing perceptions of marginalisation have gradually transformed cultural diversity into political fault lines. Genuine curiosity helps move beyond blame, fostering understanding, empathy, and dialogue, which are essential for building lasting peace, justice, and harmony in Manipur.
“When brothers fight, outsiders gain.” - This reality tragically applies to Manipur.
Abstract: This paper traces the structural causes of sustained inter-ethnic violence between Meitei (valley) and Kuki-Zo (hill) communities in Manipur from statehood (1972) through 2026. It argues that colonial-era administrative divisions, constitutional asymmetries (land and Scheduled Tribe protections), competing territorial imaginaries, long-term militarisation, and governance deficits created a layered grievance architecture that crystallised into episodic and large-scale violence. The analysis is localised through district-level examples (Imphal East/West, Bishnupur, Churachandpur, Senapati, Tamenglong, Chandel and Kangpokpi) and is accompanied by a timeline (1972–2026) of major political, legal and violent episodes. Policy implications for trust-building, legal clarity, and devolved governance are offered.
From Imphal to Churachandpur, from Kangpokpi to Moreh, Manipur today sits under an uneasy calm. The gunfire has decreased, markets have partially reopened, and highways are operating under heavy security. Yet for ordinary citizens, this is not peace. It is a tense silence layered with fear, separation, and deep mistrust. Neighbours who once shared daily life now live across guarded buffer zones. What Manipur is witnessing is not reconciliation - but enforced coexistence under military watch.
The political demands of the Naga and Kuki communities in Northeast India are centred on self-determination, territory, and identity, with the government of India seeking a solution within the constitutional framework. The feasibility of these demands is heavily obstructed by competing claims over territory and the reluctance of the Centre to concede on issues of sovereignty.
⛰️ Naga Political Demands and Feasibility
The Naga issue is India's longest-running insurgency, with peace negotiations ongoing for decades, notably since the 1997 ceasefire with the National Socialist Council of Nagalim (Isak-Muivah) or NSCN-IM.
The relationship among the Meitei, Kuki, and Naga communities in Manipur is shaped by pre-colonial political economy, colonial ethnic classification, and post-independence state restructuring. Prior to British intervention, relations were characterised by fluctuating patterns of trade, warfare, tribute, and political subordination between valley-based Meitei kings and surrounding hill tribes. Colonial policies restructured land, identity, and administration, crystallising ethnic boundaries. After India’s independence and Manipur’s merger in 1949, democratic politics, constitutional safeguards, insurgent nationalism, and competing territorial claims transformed earlier socio-political interactions into rigid ethnic contestations. This paper traces these transformations through archival records, colonial ethnography, and post-independence political developments, demonstrating how historical state formation, identity institutionalisation, and development asymmetries culminated in protracted ethnic conflict, including the large-scale violence from 2023 onward.
